Methods

Throughout this site we are keen to differentiate between Principles or theories and Methods

• Systems
• Variation
• Psychology and how we learn
• Knowledge

Systems

We can of course write your systems and procedures long hand. But in this format they are difficult both to read and get a picture of flow and interdependence.

Deployment Flowmaps

To get round this problem the most common format for description and analysis of a process is the Deployment Flowmap. The basic structure is to have responsibilities across the top of the page and the activities progressing down the page, and links showing flow and interconnections. Below we show a typical deployment flowmap:

There are several flowmapping packages available on the market.

• The deployment flow map package used above is supplied by Management- New Style and the actual package can be viewed on their web site: http://www.flowmap.com.
• An alternative format is available from the package supplied by Management and Operational Systems Ltd. (MandOS) Aberdeen - to view visit http://www.mandos.co.uk This site is also worth visiting to have a more focused view on systems and processes.

The above flowmaps are usually arranged in tiers or hierarchies. Starting with a high level flowmap indicating dependances between suppliers, departments and the customer. And then stage by stage working down to more and more detail, with each map evolving out of a higher level map. As portrayed below by David Howard of Management New Style:

Aim

It is vital for each map or process or system to have an AIM. If there is conflict it is invariably because individuals or systems have varying aims and are attempting to achieve different objectives.

Rich Pictures

Through the use of ones own imagination one can simply sketch the flow of work and the interdependences into what is often revered to as a "Rich Picture". Deming's "production viewed as a system" is the classical portrayal of a high level systems map drawn as a rich picture:

And of course you can take it further. If for example one wants to appreciate some of the facets of "Democracy," one might start with four headings - education, the media, our politicians and the electorate. By simply sketching the aims and influences of each section you soon begin to see the interrelationships. Politicians depend on the media for communication, but media are dependant on the taste of the electorate for circulation, the taste of the electorate is dependant on the education and education is dependant on the politicians - and so on.

Dynamic Systems

And then there is consideration of dynamic systems. No system is static, it can be growing, or growth might be restricted by balancing forces, or it may be declining. Furthermore there is the complication of delay. An outcome may be far removed, in time, from the action. Peter Senge in his book The Fifth Discipline has developed "Systems Archetypes" to portray dynamic systems. The following is his "Limits to Growth" model as an example:

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Variation

The method used to appreciate variation is the "Control Chart" first evolved by Walter Shewhart in the 1930s.

In simple terms we plot the data on a graph as shown below so that we have a pictorial representation of variation. Then, to define the variation, we use the terms upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limits (LCL).

Software can be obtained to portray data in control chart form. The package we would recommend, Winchart, is available from Prism Europe www.winchart.net

To determine the control limits we start by calculating the mean or average. We then determine the average range which is the average of the differences between succeeding events/values/data (we ignore positive and negative differences i.e. ranges of -5, +4, +3, -6 and +2 have an average range of 20/5 = 4). And then we calculate what we call the Standard Deviation. A standard deviation is calculated by dividing the average range by the constant 1.1284.

From experience we know that:

• Plus or minus 1 standard deviation encompasses 68% of likely occurrences
• Plus or minus 2 standard deviations encompasses 95% of likely occurrences
• Plus or minus 3 standard deviations encompasses 99.7% of likely occurrences

We use plus or minus 3 standard deviations to define the variation within a set of data. The Upper Control Limit (UCL) is the mean plus 3 standard deviations and the Lower Control Limit (LCL) is the mean minus 3 standard deviations.

In the chart we have indicated the results from a successful initiative to improve the design of the system. The second part of the chart shows greatly reduced variation.

The chart also shows the difference between Common Cause Variation (or noise) and Special Cause Variation (or signal). The Common Cause Variation (or noise) is the variation that is inherent in the system and is shown between the control limits. Special Cause (or signal) or unexpected variation is shown by the value outwith the control limits.

The important factor here is that management action is very different when faced with Common Cause (or noise) as when faced with Special Cause (or signal). With Special Cause (or signal) we are dealing with a single unexpected result. We investigate that one event. We address Common Cause (or noise) when we want to improve the whole system - through redesign of the system. It is a serious but all too common management mistake to take action without appreciating the difference.

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Psychology

The basic premise is that we are all complex and different. But if can understand ourselves, others and our interactions then our communication and team working can be substantially developed.

There are many psychometric tests to quantify ours and other behaviours. These tests are usually in the form of questionnaires with some, more sophisticated programmes, using pictures and observations in group environments.

Listening: A primary tool is the basic art of listening. The creation of an open and honest environment where all participants feel free to express their innermost feelings and also have the discipline to listen intensely to others. The danger is that we listen from our own agenda, mindset or paradigm. Intense listening drives through these barriers and sees the situation from the perspective of others.

We also recommend listening from an understanding of the system in which others are working. What is the system and what are their aims. As mentioned above most conflicts arise from differing aims operating in conflicting systems.

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Learning

The Individual

There is recognition that we should go beyond the traditional teaching or training mode and focus on the learning process. Klas Mellander talks about the five stages of learning

• Attention - awaken my curiosity
• Information - give me just the information I need
• Processing -let me think things through myself and come to my own conclusions
• Conclusions - help me find a context for the things I have understood
• Application - help me use my knowledge so that it does not wither away

The processing of the information is obviously a vital part and takes much much longer than is commonly appreciated. The action learning format is where we facilitate this processing element by allowing the individual to learn by simply expressing their views.

"My experiences have convinced me beyond a shadow of doubt that the effectiveness of training can increase dramatically if, above all, we help participants to examine and reappraise their conceptual worlds, and thus make them more receptive to alternatives" (Klas Mellander)

Mindmapping: As mentioned in the Underlying Principles file, Tony Buzan has developed the Mindmap method to facilitate learning. The method is more in tune with how we think in patterns and our appreciation of gestalt.

Thinking: The exponent of thinking, especially lateral thinking, is Edward de Bono. He has developed several methods such as "Po" or provocation; and his "Six Thinking Hats" which structures thinking into six phases:-

• White Hat - the facts
• Black Hat - the problems
• Red Hat - the emotions
• Yellow Hat - the optimistic ideas
• Green Hat - lateral thinking - way out ideas
• Blue Hat - to control the process.

And his book "Opportunities" describes a method by which an organisation maintains the search for new ideas and new methods.

The Organisation

There is recognition that the organisation has a learning ability that is separate from the learning of the individual (see Organisational Learning)

The establishment of improvement teams will facilitate learning but only if they have sufficient scope and support to address significant issues. They can make major contributions by simplifying and improving the systems of the company

The enhancement of profit, morale, customer service and innovation are organisational learning issues.

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Knowledge

Might we use the above overhead to portray the concept of Knowledge. Knowledge is based on theories, that we have been diligently researched. Data is collected and when there is confidence in the data can we convert hypotheses into theories.

The classic PDSA cycle, as seen in many applications including ISO 9000 2000, expresses a similar discipline. You plan a course of action, do, study the results by collecting data and finally you close the loop by acting relative to your findings. It is a disciplined learning cycle. This cycle has been the basis of the development of scientific thinking throughout the centuries.

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